8 The Gods of Greece and Rome
The notion of 'god' is a complex one. What is
meant by 'a god'? In modern English, a distinction of a kind is made between
God, gods, spirits, ghosts, and demons, and much Judaeo-Christian influence can
be felt. Many of the Indo-European peoples developed a rich tradition of epic,
heroic tales in which more or less immortal figures play a role, often behaving
very like ordinary mortal humans and becoming involved in human affairs. In the
same stories we find a variety of nymphs and dryads that are clearly
pantheistic nature spirits. The passage from the anthropomorphic notion
of gods to a higher level of vision has already been traced in the development
of Greek philosophy. The older stories about anthropomorphic gods very similar
to people are reflected clearly in Homer's great epics.
At the same time, many of the stories told about
the gods of Greece seem to derive from legends connected with cultic sites,
temples and altars, that were frequently found beside sacred wells or groves of
trees. These cultic sites often derived from a feeling that nature is full of
invisible semi-divine spirits that need to be placated with offerings.
The nymphs and naiads of Classical tradition, the elves and goblins of northern
Europe, the fairies of Celtic lore all have much in common. Another religious
tradition, mentioned in earlier chapters, is the ancient fertility cult
of the Earth Mother and her son who dies and rises from the dead. Finally,
certain divinities were associated with ecstatic 'mystery' cults in
which the god was believed to take possession of his or her devotees; Dionysius
is the most familiar example. There may be a link with some form of Shamanism
here.
The attitude of the Greeks (and later of the
Romans) toward their gods was not as devout and serious as that demanded by
Christianity. They were very aware of the grotesque and arbitrary elements
found in the myths and tales told about them. This probably only made them more
real, since life itself is so often grotesque and arbitrary. It also made them
more dangerous, since the gods of Greece are not originally models of justice
and love. They can be as vicious and cruel as any tyrant. The change in
understanding of the gods found in the Greek tragedies and the philosophers
reflects the changes taking place in Greek (especially Athenian) society at the
time, where democracy and its laws were seen as the triumph of reason and
justice over the dark cruelty of irrational passion.
Hesiod had expressed an essential pattern when
he depicted the fundamental processes of the cosmos as Eros and Eris,
Love and Strife, union and division. The epic tales about ancient heroes, and
the gods who are like them, seem very often to be illustrations of this same
pattern. Presiding over all that happens is the relentless passage of Time,
and the inevitable pattern of change that goes with it; behind that
stands the mysterious dimension known as Destiny, 'that which must
happen' and which threatens even the gods.
Very many stories told in Greece are about the
attempts of men and gods to avoid Determinism; for the Greek gods are subject
to Destiny and have no 'natural' knowledge of what lies in store for them. In
this, too, they are very like humans. There are a number of stories about oracles, that at
Delphi being the most famous, where gods (mainly Apollo) tell humans the hidden
truth about what must happen. The humans then try in vain to outwit Fate, like
Oedipus deciding never to return to Corinth so long as his parents are alive,
but Destiny is not to be avoided. The famous inscription 'know yourself' at the
entrance to the shrine at Delphi was designed to remind people that they were
not the masters of their destiny, and that they should therefore be humble.
Most of the gods from the Greek pantheon, and
the stories about them (often called 'myths'), were adopted by Rome. Original
Roman religion was much less related to myths and tales, it was essentially
domestic and civic, with cults offered to spirits of the home, of
storeroom and fireplace, (Lares and Penates) as well as to each
family's ancestors. Often the Romans had perhaps retained the names of older
divinities but not the stories related to them. This would explain why the
Romans often had a
different
name for the Greek gods.
In the following section, a few of the main
characteristics of the most familiar gods are indicated. This was never a
systematic religion; the same god had different characteristics in different
stories or shrines. One attempt to systematize is reflected in the 'Olympian synthesis'
found in Hesiod (see the section 'Titans' below) by which several gods
are said to be the children of a single father and mother, Kronos and Rhea.
The Olympian gods then overthrow their father and take power in an epic
war that serves to remind us that the Greek gods were not thought to be
almighty or eternal. Immortality could not preserve them from loss of power and
ultimate oblivion. The story may in part reflect the process by which the
Indo-European pantheon replaced the gods worshipped in Greece before the
Indo-European Greeks arrived; but it is also another example of the way in
which the gods' experience of life is no different from than of humans. It is
the awareness that the gods too are in the end limited that may explain the
part of comic disrespect found in Greek and Roman portrayals of them,
culminating in Ovid.
Zeus
(Father
Zeus)
(Jupiter,
Jove
in Latin)
Originally an Indo-European god (cf. Germanic Ziu who gave his name
to Tuesday and Roman Ziu pater Jupiter; also found in India). At first a god of the sky, of the power
of thunder, he became a heavenly king in the royal age of Mycenae, at which
moment various other figures were grouped around him as a royal family and
court, located on the Olympos (a pre-Greek word meaning 'mountain'). Homer gave this image such poetic force
that the Greeks accepted it just as they were abolishing kingship in their own
societies.
Since he very quickly represents the growing
monotheistic vision, Zeus is not usually involved in the ordinary things of life,
but in the great issues, so that Hesiod puts Dike (personified Justice)
at his side, and sees him as the protector of law and morality. Aeschylus gives this its highest
expression, making him a god of sublime righteousness and power. The Stoics used his name for the
highest power in their system (fire which is reason), otherwise the
philosophers tended to reject the name with the aspects of personified deity
against which their systems rose.
The myths echoed by Hesiod about the origin of
Zeus as the child of Kronos and Rhea, his struggle against them and his fellow-Titans,
the victory of the Olympian gods whom Kronos had swallowed, seem to have
originated in Asia Minor.
Hera
(Juno
in Latin)
Originally a goddess for married women. As the "wife" of Zeus, she is
shown as the mother of Ares, Hebe, Hephaestus etc., and as the furious punisher
of her husband's adventures with other females, divine or human. She is the enemy of Troy in Homer, and
thus of the Trojan Aeneas in Virgil; but she is shown helping Jason. She was one of the three involved in
the Judgement of Paris.
Ares
(Mars
in Latin)
A god associated with the warrior spirit,
unpopular and unloved in Greece, the second god in Rome after Jupiter! His character is shown as harsh,
lawless, violent. Homer tells a story where he is the lover of Aphrodite, and
not very clever, so that the other gods laugh at him when the crippled
Hephaestus traps them together in bed with a magic net.
Poseidon
(Neptune
in Latin)
Always associated with earthquakes and the sea,
shown in art holding a trident, he is one of the sons of Kronos in Hesiod. He is also associ¡©ated with horses, he
is the father of Pegasus, the winged horse. He is also the father of monsters, including the one-eyed Polyphemus
whom Odysseus blinds in the Odyssey, so that Poseidon becomes his great
enemy for much of the story.
Hephaestos
(Vulcan
in Latin)
Associated with fire, in Italy directly with
volcanoes, in Homer he is shown as a smith, a craftsman and a magician, making
Achilles' armour, the furniture in Olympos; he also made Pandora, the
first woman, according to Hesiod.
He was lame, but was very strong.
There is a story of his being thrown out of heaven, which Milton uses
early in Paradise Lost. He
is shown, allegorically and humorously, as the husband of the beautiful
Aphrodite.
Aphrodite
(Venus
in Latin)
The goddess of love, in the sexual sense,
associated with beauty and fertility; in art she is shown with majestic beauty
in the fifth century, with charm in nude statues of the fourth. She was quickly used by poets to
personify the powers of physical attraction, of sex. She is the mother of Aeneas by a human father, but
Zeus tells her to keep out of the war. Stories about her marriage or (in Homer)
affair with Ares also shows the ironic relationship felt to exist
between love and war. She was
awarded the prize in the Judgement of Paris. Shakespeare's Venus and Adonis tells the story of her
love for Adonis, the beautiful young man killed by a boar. Originally this was probably a
fertility myth, for Adon is Semitic for "Lord" (Hebrew
"Adonai") and Aphrodite has connections with the Asian goddess
Astarte.
Eros
(Cupid
in Latin)
Originally,
and until Homer, not a god but a word for passionate desire, usually
sexual. He is clearly, from the
beginning, an allegorical personification, and this explains why there
are many different stories about his birth or origin. Hesiod, looking for a cosmic force, made him powerful over
gods and men, dangerous as the one who "loosens the limbs and damages the
mind". He is usually
associated with Aph¡©rodite. Since
the lyric poets were concerned with the psychology of love, they show him as
cunning, cruel, the cause of sudden madness; but he is also a most beautiful
young man, surrounded by flowers.
Sappho calls him "bitter-sweet".
Hesiod's powerful, cosmic Eros appealed to
Parmenides and Euri¡©pides, preparing the way for the discussion about Eros in
Plato's Symposium. The
Hellenistic poets enjoyed playing with the lighter side of the love-experience;
Euripides is the first to mention Eros's
bow and arrows, but the later poets develop the picture, at the
same time as they diminish his stature to that of a saucy, provocative, playful
little boy with arrows of lead and gold.
This is the picture that dominates Renais¡©sance poetry, always as a
personification of the irrational confusion that "falling in love"
brings. Although Eros/love is said
to be "blind", this is rather to be seen as a game, the child enjoys
being blindfolded.
Athena
Parthenos
(Minerva
in Latin)
The patron goddess of Athens from
Mycenean times, so that she is shown wearing armour of Mycenean form. She is
celebrated as the patron of work, of skills, and so of wisdom. She has an owl beside her. In war she is nearly as powerful as
Ares, but more committed because of her protective functions. Her temple in Athens on the Ac¡©ropolis
is called the Parthenon (Parthenos means Maiden).
She is said in Hesiod to have sprung fully armed from the head of Zeus
when Hephaestos split it with an axe.
Apollo
(Apollo
Phoebus in Latin)
Honoured everywhere in Greece, celebrated in the
Homeric hymns. Always a prophetic god, especially associated with Delphi,
he is shown in art as young and handsome, active in music, archery, medicine,
law, justice, truth (so he is even said to be the father of Plato). His love for Cassandra, Priam's
daughter, led him to give her the gift of pro¡©phecy, but when she then still
refused his desires, he gave her the curse of never being believed when she
spoke the truth. Someone who warns
society of dangers and doom that people do not want to hear about, that person
is still called a 'Cassandra'. Apollo is some¡©times associated with the sun
(Helios).
The Delphic Oracle was the most respected
religious authority in Greece, but so often spoke with an ambiguous voice, that
Apollo too seems a dangerous figure.
The shrine at Delphi, at the foot of Mount Parnassus, was
a place of sanctuary, and much treasure was also kept there. It was almost the only meeting-place
for all the city-states. The
oracles were given by a woman (Pythia) in a state of trance, and inter¡©preted
into messages by the priests.
People coming with a question were obliged to be "pure", not
only by washing and sacrifice, but in heart, too. As they entered the shrine, they saw the inscriptions
"Know thyself" and "Nothing too much".
Artemis
(Diana
in Latin)
Thought of as the daughter of Leto, with Apollo
her brother, and the child of Zeus, she is mainly the goddess of all the wild
forests and hills, a huntress, but also dangerous to women, causing them
to die suddenly. But she was also
a goddess of fertility, especially through the great temple at Ephesus that
was her main shrine (Saint Paul had problems there in the Acts of the
Apostles), and although she herself was a virgin goddess she helped
women at childbirth.
She was often identified with the Titanesses Hecate
and Selene, the former the goddess of magic spells and ghosts, the
latter the Moon goddess (in Latin Luna). Hence Keats's "Dian, Queen of Earth, and Heaven,
and Hell." (To Homer).
Demeter
(Ceres
in Latin)
The ancient mother-goddess of the
harvests (giving corn for bread).
Already in the Homeric Hymn to her, her companion-daughter Kore
or Persephone, in Latin Proserpina, has been
carried off as bride by Hades, the god of the dead, to his home in the
underworld. Since Kore had eaten
there, she could no longer escape completely, she therefore spent several
months each year hidden beneath the earth. This story was celebrated at Eleusis, where the
Mysteries taught very ancient fertility rites.
Hades
A son of Kronos, Hades was lord of the Lower
World, to whose home the shades of the dead go; he is grim and pitiless. He was often called Pluto(n)
(the Rich One) and thus confused with the son of Demeter, Plutus, the
source of wealth. This wealth was
originally a good harvest of corn, but the link with the underworld in later times
extended his power to such things as gold and silver.
The Underworld is visited in classical
literature by Odysseus in quest of Tiresias, Orpheus in quest of Euridice, by
Heracles in quest of the dog Cerberus, by Aeneas in quest of his father. Virgil's Aeneid Book 6 gives the
most detailed description of the geography of Hell. In the Plain of Asphodel, the ordinary
"shades" wander pale.
For the chosen few, there are the joys of the Elysian Fields,
where they continue to enjoy activities they excelled at in life. Others, enemies of the gods, suffer the
torments of Tartarus (falsely transferred to the Christian world-view as
Hell). Any soul arriving in
Hades is ferried across the river Styx (or Acheron) by the
boat-man Charon. A coin was
placed in the mouth of a corpse before burial, with which to pay Charon. Those
unburied may not pass, their spirits cannot rest. Cerberus the hell-hound is on guard to prevent any
return. Phlegethon, the
river of fire, flows there too, Cocytus, and Lethe, the river of
oblivion, at which souls drink before going for reincarnation.
Dionysus
Worshipped in a quite different kind of
religion, from Thrace, ecstatic, in which women (maenads) leave home and
go dancing and singing through the hills, possessed by the spirit of the god,
in a pri¡©mitive frenzy (orgy) at the height of which they kill a beast or a
child and devour it.
Another form, from Phrygia, gives Dionysus the
name Bacchus, a god of vegetation, especially of fruit, and so of grapes
and of wine. He was a
sleep-in-winter, rise-in-springtime god, and in art he is shown surrounded by Satyrs
and Sileni (young and old men, active passions, fertility). He was said to have been born from
Zeus' thigh.
In Athens, the festivals of Dionysus (Dionysia)
were the occasion for special songs and dances which developed into
tragedy, first at the City Dionysia in Spring, to which people came from
many parts of Greece, then at the Winter Dionysia, the Lenaea, when only
Athenians attended. Dionysia then
spread into many towns, giving them the occasion to stage their own dramatic
performances.
Pan
Very familiar because of his flute, the Syrinx
(pan-pipes), and his goat-like appearance, Pan became the symbolic wild spirit
of uncon¡©trolled Nature. He was
able to inspire "panic" in sheep and humans, a sudden attack of
irrational fear that sent them fleeing for no apparent reason. He was said to have appeared to the
running Philippides, as he brought news of the Persian arrival from Marathon to
Athens.
There is a Christian legend that at the moment
Jesus died in Jerusalem, a voice was heard in Greece lamenting "Great Pan
is dead." Since 'Pan' also
means 'All' the name Pan was occasionally applied to Jesus.
Titans
Hesiod says that before the
triumph of the Olympians led by Zeus, there was a race of Titans, the children
of Gaea and Uranos, heaven and earth. Gaea emerges from Chaos, produces Uranos before
uniting with him. The Titans
include Hyperion and Phoebe, whose names are used to indicate sun
and moon, as well as Rhea and Kronos, who are brother and sister
but unite after Kronos has castrated his father Uranos and taken his
place. Kronos was warned that he
was fated to be overthrown by one of his children, so he swallowed them as they
were born, only Zeus was hidden by his mother. Kronos later was forced to vomit up the others, there was a
great war and the Titans were overthrown.
The most famous Titan (or son of Titan) is Prometheus,
who seems to be a clever trickster in his actions. He is shown outwitting Zeus about the parts of the animal
which men should keep in sacrifice, and the parts they should burn for
Zeus (the men got the best meat, the gods got the bones and the fat). His most important action was the gift,
or restora¡©tion, of fire to men.
For this, says Aeschylus, he was chained by Zeus to a rock where an
eagle ate up his liver for ever.
In Aeschylus he becomes the model of defiance, the archetypal romantic
hero. In most legends, Hercules
rescued him.
Hesiod also tells how Zeus, to punish men for
the sacrifice trick, asked Hephaestos to make the first woman, Pandora
(= all gifts). Pro¡©metheus'
brother, not seeing the risk, married her, after which she opened the "Pandora's
box" she had been told not to touch, and all the evils of life flew
out into the world, leaving only hope at the bottom.
Personifications
Greeks, and other Indo-European peoples too,
liked to have personifi¡©cations for all aspects of life. Among the main groups we find:
1)
The Fates (in Hesiod named Clotho, Lachesis, Atropos) who spin,
then cut, the thread of individual destiny.
2)
The Graces who represent the charming qualities required in society. As
three young sisters (Euphrosyne, Aglaia, Thalia) they are often re¡©presented in
paintings, standing naked together in harmony.
3)
The Furies (The Erinyes or the Eumenides, the 'kind ones')
who bring punishment on those who harm their family, who murder their own kin,
who neglect sacred duties. They
are vital in Aeschylus' Oresteia, where they are shown submitting to
Athenian democratic justice, having pursued Orestes as far as Delphi (where
those pursued could find shelter).
4)
The Muses, from Hesiod onwards are pictured as the spirits of inspira¡©tion. He shows them living on Mount
Helicon (his home) and bringing the poet theme and voice. On Helicon there was a temple to the
Muses, and various springs there are famous for giving poetic
inspiration: Hippocrene, Aganippe.
Hesiod also gives the names of nine muses, later Roman writers gave them
special functions: Calliope (epic), Clio (history), Euterpe (flutes), Melpomone
(tragedy), Terpsichore (song and dance), Erato (lyric poetry), Polyhymnia
(religious verse), Urania (astronomy), Thalia (comedy).
5) The Winds
were personified as gods and worshipped by Greeks and Romans, together with
other aspects of nature. Aeolus
was the keeper of the Winds in general (whence the "aeolian harp"
of Coleridge). Boreas the
North wind and Zephyrus the West wind are already personified in Homer
and these names are used in English poetry at least from Chaucer onwards.
6)
The Dawn (Eos; in Latin Aurora, commonly
used in English) is pictured by Homer in famous passages ("rosy fingered
Dawn") as rising from her bed of love, drawing back her curtain, then
leaving her lover Tithonus while she drives the sun chariot across the
sky. The sun is also personified
as Helios, Hyperion, Phoebus.
7)
During sleep, Morpheus sends dreams about human figures. Night, too, is personified, as
is Sleep itself.
8)
Strife (Eris) is the bringer of discord; her most famous act is the
origin of the Trojan War. By
rolling the golden apple ("apple of discord") into the midst of the
gods at the wedding of Peleus and Thetis, Eris provoked the quarrel that was
settled by the Judgement of Paris, in thanks for which Aphrodite gave him
Helen. Strife was also seen by Hesiod as
the
fundamental active principal in nature, dividing where Eros brought together.
9)
The Horae in Hesiod are personifications of fundamental social
ideals: Eunomia (Good Govern¡©ment), Dike (Justice), Eirene (Peace).