1 Mesopotamia
The whole history of Western culture after that
is a history of migrations from East to West and from North to South, wave
after wave of peoples, speaking various languages and bringing various levels
of culture. These early peoples
lived in the simplest way, but they had developed techniques of organized
farming which made them different from more primitive peoples who depended only
on hunting and picking wild plants. The first farming people entered Europe
around 8000 B.C..
Some time soon after 5000 B.C., something vital
happened to humanity. People
began, in various places, at Babylon in Mesopotamia, at Jericho in Israel, at
Catal Huyuk in Turkey, and elsewhere, to build large numbers of houses close
together. The result was the first
cities, the beginning of modern society, of urban living (Latin urbs
means town). The Greek word
for city is polis. Here too
lies the begin¡©ning of "politics"! The earliest remains of towns to be found in Meso¡©potamia
are dated to 5000-4000 B.C.
Mesopotamia lies between what is
now called Armenia (between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea) to the North and
the tip of the Persian Gulf to the South.
From the Armenian mountains two great rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates,
flow down, roughly parallel, and the land between them, surrounded by desert,
was made fertile by the annual floods caused by the melting of the snow in
springtime.
"Mesopotamia" means "land between the rivers" in Greek. It corresponds to modern Iraq.
To the South-East of Mesopotamia lay Persia
(now called Iran), and beyond that, the great sub-continent of India into which Sanskrit-¡©speaking
Aryans were to bring a culture related closely to that of Western Europe. Mesopotamia itself was really a double
cultural space. To the North lay Assyria,
centered on Nineveh, to the South was Babylonia centered in the city of
Babylon (sometimes called Babel in the Bible), with the city of Ur not
far from the Persian Gulf, in the South, and Haran (the home of Abraham
in the Bible) far to the North.
Sumerian
Culture
The first major culture to arise in Mesopotamia
was that of the Sumerians, who arrived on the site of Babylon soon after
4000 B.C. and who main¡©tained a strong influence over the whole area as far as
the Mediter¡©ranean for almost 2000 years.
At the same time, the Egyptians were independently developing a sophisticated
culture in the valley of the Nile. There is no other known language related to
the Sumerian language.
While Western Europe was still in its
Neolithic (New Stone Age) phase until 1700 B.C., Sumerian civilization was
at its height and by 3000 had developed the earliest known form of writing,
called cuneiform, picto¡©grams written on soft clay by the triangular
stem of the papyrus reed, then baked hard and preserved until today in the dry
sands of the desert areas, or in the fires which destroyed the cities.
The Sumerians discovered much of what we call
technology and science. By 3500
they were smelting copper, gold and silver. By 3000, masons (builders) and smiths (metal workers) were
specialists, wheeled vehicles were being used, and pottery was being made on
the potter's wheel. Many have said
that the wheel is the greatest human invention. Some time around 3000
the loom spread into Europe, another great advance, but at that same
time, the Sumerians were inventing the oil lamp which allowed work to
continue after nightfall, and, like the Egyptians and the Chinese, had begun
scientific observations of the sun and the movements of the stars. In Egypt and
in Mesopotamia, systems for writing numbers were invented.
One of the main factors in the development of
Sumerian civilization was the need to come to agreement on the use of water in
the irrigation canals on which agriculture, thus life, depended. In this way they discovered the need for
laws which could be enforced with penalties, society became a structure
of rights and obligations, something more than mere family or village ties.
Sumerian culture was basically agricultural and
until metal coins were invented (3000-2500 B.C.) they used barley as
money. These first city-dwellers
built special temples for the celebration of religious rites and their
religion was of the same kind as that found in Egypt, among the Hittites
and Phoenicians and as far north as Scandinavia, a religion with a
Mother-goddess and her son who dies but is restored to life, only to die
again. This fertility religion
is closely linked to the cycles of the year, seed-time in spring, germination
and growth, harvest and then barren winter.
A vital moment in history comes between 3000 and
2500 B.C.. New arrivals in Mesopotamia, settling in the northern area (Assyria)
are speaking forms of Semitic languages which today
have evolved into Hebrew and Arabic.
At the same time, others move down into the very fertile coastal region
of Lebanon (famous for its forests) and create the Phoenician towns of Tyre,
Sidon and Byblos.
The
First Assyrian Empire
Around the year 2300, Sargon of Agade
took control of the whole of
Mesopotamia, parts of Syria and Asia Minor and sent soldiers as far as
Crete. This first example of
far-flung control only lasted about 50 years but it is a sign that societies
were emerging that were capable of great organization. What caused its collapse was the
arrival of new groups. The
Semitic newcomers, Elamites and Amorites, whose names are
found in the Bible, seem to have given new energy to Babylon, which became a
major centre of power under Hammurabi (1790-1750). Hammurabi is remembered as the first
great codifier of laws.
From this time, for over 1000 years there is
little to report. The focus of our story moves to Egypt and then to Israel,
where Mesopotamia plays a vital role in the years leading up to the destruction
of Jerusalem and the Exile of 587.
Mesopotamian
Mythology
Sumerian society kept the old village system
of "popular democracy",
decisions being made by all the adult males after long dis¡©cussions. The kings were more like priests,
indeed, in many cultures the idea of kingship seems to originate from sacred
functions rather than from exercise of
power. The main cult was linked
to the fertility myths of the new year and the need to renew the gods' interest
in the crops. The stories of the
gods, varying through the centuries, were in the form of myths and came
to be expressed in epic form; the most famous Mesopotamian epic is that of Gilgamesh
but there are others, as well as songs lamenting the death of the shepherd
god Tammuz, whose return from the dead heralded the return of fertility
to the new year.
The Sumerian vision of the gods was
similar to their experience of human society; the gods, each with particular
but limited responsibility, are thought of as a pantheon where
individuals are constantly fighting and competing with each other. Human destiny depends on the outcome of
these quarrels. Each city is under
a particular deity, who may for a while lose power to another, following which
the city will also be conquered by that other god's city. Such anthropomorphic pantheons
are equally found in Greece and Scandinavia, and there are many
similarities. The great difference
lies in the nature of the central figure.
In the older system, widespread, the central focus is on the Mother
Goddess whose son is the dying and reborn power of fertility. Later, almost everywhere, the
Indo-European invaders introduce another set of figures, a patriarchal
pantheon with the Storm God in some kind of position of often threatened power.
A
summary of Gilgamesh
In the time before the Flood, there was a city,
Shuruppak, on the banks of the Euphrates. There, the counsel of the gods held a
secret meeting; they all resolved to destroy the world in a great flood. All
the gods were under oath not to reveal this secret to any living thing, but Ea
(one of the gods that created humanity) came to Utnapishtim's house and told
the secret to the walls of Utnapishtim's house, thus not technically violating
his oath to the rest of the gods. He advised the walls of Utnapishtim's house
to build a great boat, its length as great as its breadth, to cover the boat,
and to bring all living things into the boat.
Utnapishtim gets straight to work and finishes
the great boat by the new year. Utnapishtim then loads the boat with gold,
silver, and all the living things of the earth, and launches the boat. Ea
orders him into the boat and commands him to close the door behind him. The
black clouds arrive, with the thunder god Adad rumbling within them; the earth
splits like an earthenware pot, and all the light turns to darkness. The Flood
is so great that even the gods are frightened:
The
gods shook like beaten dogs, hiding in the far
corners
of heaven,
Ishtar
screamed and wailed:
"The days of old have turned to
stone:
We
have decided evil things in our Assembly!
Why
did we decide those evil things in our Assembly?
Why
did we decide to destroy our people?
We
have only just now created our beloved humans;
We
now destroy them in the sea!"
All
the gods wept and wailed along with her,
All
the gods sat trembling, and wept.
The Flood lasts for seven days and seven nights,
and finally light returns to the
earth. Utnapishtim opens a window and the entire earth has been turned into a
flat ocean; all humans have been turned to stone. Utnapishtim then falls to his
knees and weeps.
Utnapishtim's boat comes to rest on the top of
Mount Nimush; the boat lodges firmly on the mountain peak just below the
surface of the ocean and remains there for seven days. On the seventh day:
I
[Utnapishtim] released a dove from the boat,
It
flew off, but circled around and returned,
For
it could find no perch.
I
then released a swallow from the boat,
It
flew off, but circled around and returned,
For
it could find no perch.
I
then released a raven from the boat,
It
flew off, and the waters had receded:
It
eats, it scratches the ground, but it does not circle around and return.
I
then sent out all the living things in every direction and
sacrificed
a sheep on that very spot.
The gods smell the odor of the sacrifice and
begin to gather around Utnapishtim. Enlil, who had originally proposed to
destroy all humans, then arrives,
furious that one of the humans had survived, since they had agreed to wipe out
all humans. He accuses Ea of treachery, but Ea convinces Enlil to be merciful.
Enlil then seizes Utnapishtim and his wife and blesses them:
At
one time Utnapishtim was mortal.
At
this time let him be a god and immortal;
Let
him live in the far away at the source of all the rivers.
At the end of his story, Utnapishtim offers
Gilgamesh a chance at immortality. If Gilgamesh can stay awake for six days and
seven nights, he, too, will become immortal. Gilgamesh accepts these conditions
and sits down on the shore; the instant he sits down he falls asleep.
Utnapishtim tells his wife that all men are
liars, that Gilgamesh will deny having fallen asleep, so he asks his wife to
bake a loaf of bread every day and lay the loaf at Gilgamesh's feet. Gilgamesh
sleeps without ever waking up for six days and seven nights, at which point
Utnapishtim wakes him up. Startled, Gilgamesh says, "I only just dozed off
for half a second here." Utnapishtim points out the loaves of bread,
showing their states of decay from the most recent, fresh bread, to the oldest,
moldy, stale bread that had been laid at his feet on the very first day.
Gilgamesh is distraught:
O
woe! What do I do now, where do I go now?
Death
has devoured my body,
Death dwells in my body,
Wherever
I go, wherever I look, there stands Death!
Utnapishtim's wife convinces the old man to have
mercy on him; he offers Gilgamesh in place of immortality a secret plant that
will make Gilgamesh young again. The plant is at the bottom of the ocean
surrounding the Far‑Away; Gilgamesh ties stones to his feet, sinks to the
bottom, and plucks the magic plant. But he doesn't use it because he doesn't
trust it; rather he decides to take it back to Uruk and test it out on an old
man first, to make sure it works.
Urshanabi takes him across the Waters of Death.
Several leagues inland, Gilgamesh and Urshanabi stop to eat and sleep; while
they're sleeping, a snake slithers up and eats the magic plant (which is why
snakes shed their skin) and crawls away. Gilgamesh awakens to find the plant
gone; he falls to his knees and weeps:
For
whom have I labored? For whom have I journeyed?
For
whom have I suffered?
I
have gained absolutely nothing for myself,
I
have only profited the snake, the ground lion!
The tale ends with Gilgamesh, at the end of his
journey standing before the gates of Uruk, inviting Urshanabi to look around
and view the greatness of this city, its high walls, its masonwork, and here at
the base of its gates, as the foundation of the city walls, a stone of lapis
lazuli on which is carved Gilgamesh's account of his exploits.